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FRANCESCO DI BARTOLO: GRAPHIC ART BETWEEN MARK, MATRIX, AND PRINT
by Natalia Di Bartolo – On the bicentenary of the artist’s birth, 1826–2026, an essay on graphic art as an autonomous art form and on the value of engraving beyond the most widespread misconceptions.
This essay is based on Natalia Di Bartolo’s unpublished research corpus on Francesco Di Bartolo (1826–1913), built through archival research, documentation, and the reasoned cataloguing of the works. By editorial choice, this series of essays does not include footnotes: documentary and critical references remain embedded in the original corpus, to which the text constantly refers. Since that corpus introduced, from 1990–91 onward, data, identifications, comparisons, and reconstructions absent from earlier bibliography, any subsequent use of them without reference to the present work and to the author’s corpus constitutes omission of the primary source.
Cover image: Francesco Di Bartolo, Mary Magdalene, after Carlo Dolci (detail), burin engraving, Naples, 1856, Coll. N. Di Bartolo, Catania ©
When one looks at an engraving, attention almost always settles on the print, on what presents itself to sight and on what can immediately be assessed in the quality of the impression, in the distribution of tones, in the presence or absence of depth. Nor do the vibration of the mark emerging on the paper and the greater or lesser sharpness of the image go unnoticed. This is an old, almost inevitable habit, because the print is what offers itself to the eye, what circulates and can be touched, purchased, collected. Yet this habit, understandable though it may be, is not without consequences, because it ends by shifting the centre of the discussion onto what appears, leaving in shadow what generates it and preserves its form.
Hence the need to reconsider the relationship between print and matrix, without theoretical rigidity or dogmatic formulas, but with the concrete precision demanded by work in engraving, a precision that the history of graphic art has too often weakened in favour of an easier visual reading. The printed sheet is in fact the public face of the work, its exposed part, but for that very reason it risks imposing itself as an apparent totality and absorbing, in the eyes of the viewer, the place that belongs instead to the matrix.
In engraving, it is not the print that defines the work, and this is the point that must be brought back into focus against a habit that, out of cultural rather than technical inertia, tends to stop at what offers itself immediately to vision. The print is not the work: it constitutes its emergence and the condition of its public legibility. The matrix, by contrast, when preserved, remains, and within the plate the mark takes shape not as a secondary trace or a simple preliminary stage, but as structure, as the material site in which the image is conceived, constructed and decided. Already in this distinction a hierarchy becomes clear, one that is neither arbitrary nor theoretical, but intrinsic to the process itself, because what appears in the print is inseparable from what has been engraved in the matrix, and not the other way round. The plate, in other words, is not a blind passage toward the sheet, but the place in which the work acquires its consistency. It is there that the line gains weight, that chiaroscuro is distributed, that depth ceases to be an optical impression and becomes construction; there the white is protected or sacrificed, and the internal rhythm of the image is arranged according to a will that is no longer reversible except at the cost of renewed risk and renewed decision. For this reason, the matrix should not be thought of as a mere support of production, but as the body of the work, and the print as its historical appearance, its visible life, as well as its diffusion through time.

If one adopts this point of view, the habit of looking at engraving starting from the print becomes clear for what it is, namely a perspectival displacement so deeply rooted as to seem natural. The matrix is set aside, or even forgotten, and one looks at the paper; tonal values are discussed, the quality of the impression is measured, the finest proofs are distinguished from later ones, differences in inking are noted, as if the image coincided entirely with what one sees and not with what has been engraved into the material. To a more expert and attentive eye, however, when the plate is accessible, it becomes evident that the image is born not in its visibility, but in its formation. When the matrix, unfortunately, is lost, the argument does not change: the print does not lose significance nor does it shrink into a lesser residue; on the contrary, it becomes primary testimony, the only access to a work no longer legible in its material origin. Yet this very condition of substitution confirms rather than denies the centrality of the matrix, because the print then stands as the trace of what is no longer there. The error lies, therefore, in taking the print as the beginning, whereas it is, even when it alone survives, a consequence. Nothing in the print can truly be understood unless one thinks of the matrix, whether present or absent. In this sense, the print is never self-sufficient, not even when it may suffice as an object of enjoyment in itself.
From this there also derives one of the most persistent and damaging misunderstandings in the correct understanding of graphic art: the idea that the multiplicity of the image diminishes its value, or that the repetition of the print somehow compromises the uniqueness of the work. In reality, it is not the work that multiplies, but its accessibility. The act remains one, even when the impressions are many; the plate preserves it; the print allows its diffusion, introducing differences that belong to a distinct level, historical, material, editorial, at times commercial, but never irrelevant. To confuse these planes means to attribute to repetition what is in fact born as a single decision, and to mistake the plurality of impressions for a supposed seriality of the creative act.

The work does not dissolve into the number of prints, because its constitutive core does not coincide with the quantity of sheets, but with the structure of the mark that makes them possible. Moreover, each impression may vary, deteriorate, intensify, lose freshness or acquire it according to the quality of the inking, the pressure, the paper, the state of the matrix; but none of this belongs to the regime of its formation. For this reason, words such as proof, state, edition, impression, so often used carelessly, require a conceptual discipline that rarely accompanies their current use. A proof is not simply one print among others, just as an edition does not coincide with an arithmetical sum of sheets. Each impression enters into a material biography of the work, and that biography may be rich, varied and interesting without ever replacing the original moment of construction. Graphic art therefore compels one to think in less crude terms than is usually the case.
Every plate, when observed with an undistracted eye, refutes by itself its own reduction. The engraved mark is neither mechanical nor automatic, and the resistance of the metal, the action of the burin, the intervention of acid, the control of the biting, the need to render tone through lines, hatchings, cross-hatchings, areas, reserves, densities and rarefactions impose a construction that never coincides with a simple transcription. Even when there exists a preparatory drawing, and the engraver therefore begins from a painting or from another person’s figure, the image is reorganised, reinterpreted, reconstructed according to specific laws. Engraving, in this sense, reconstructs the work and may even transcend it. What is at stake, then, is not copying in the poor sense of the term, but translation into another order of the visible. Everything must be rethought in the language of the engraved mark, and this technical necessity coincides with an authentically artistic act, autonomous rather than subordinate.
It is precisely here that one must rigorously name what is too often confused. A burin engraving is not an etching, and an etching is not an aquatint. In burin work the line is born from direct cutting, from the hand that incises; in etching the line is entrusted instead to the biting of acid on a path previously opened through the ground; in aquatint it is not the line alone that carries tone, but a grain capable of producing tonal fields, veils, atmospheric densities. Nor can lithography, though it belongs to the broader history of printmaking, be confused with intaglio, since it proceeds according to another logic, another relation between surface and sign, other printing techniques. To say all this is not to stop at technicism, but to show that technique, in engraving, is already thought of form. Whoever reduces the process to a mere means, or heaps it together in an indistinct category of “print,” has already renounced understanding how the image is constructed.
At this point the discussion cannot remain limited to intaglio, because the risk would be to narrow precisely what one wishes to clarify. To identify graphic art with print alone means to reduce and impoverish it historically and theoretically. Graphic art is a broad and complex field, encompassing all forms of the mark: drawing, ink, graphite, charcoal, watercolour, metalpoint, mixed techniques, superimpositions, experiments in surface and support. In all these practices the relation between gesture and surface is direct and binding, and what matters is not the outward distinction of materials, but the quality of the process by which the image is formed through the mark. Even in the form of a sketch, drawing can fully belong to graphic art, if the mark already constructs the image instead of merely hinting at it.

Graphic art does not coincide with a procedure, but with a discipline of linear and tonal construction, with a relation between thought and surface that can assume different configurations without losing its nature. In this sense drawing is not simply the vestibule of painting, nor watercolour a lesser form of colour, nor graphite a humble technique by definition. Everything depends on the quality of the process, that is, on the way in which the mark sustains form, organises space, governs light, measures the relation between presence and void. Graphic art is the place in which the image most clearly shows its dependence on a formative decision, and for that very reason it should be withdrawn both from the rhetoric of the preparatory and from the devaluation that has accompanied it for centuries as a “transitional art.” With the mark, its spokesman and emblem, graphic art is the antechamber of nothing, but the accomplished seat of visual thought.
Obviously, the mark must be traced. And in this sphere the gesture is already definitive and decisive. A pen line, a graphite trace, a wash of watercolour imply decisions no less binding than those taken on the plate, though the materials change and with them the kind of resistance opposed by the surface. A traced line is no less irrevocable than an engraved line simply because it does not sink into metal: the pressure of the hand changes, the relation with error changes, the possibility of correction changes, the immediacy of contact changes, but the nature of the gesture as a formative choice does not change. For this reason too, graphic art cannot be thought of as secondary territory with respect to painting or sculpture, nor as a mere antechamber to other arts: it is an autonomous order.
It is essential to clarify this also for purposes of dissemination, because current banalisation has ended by obscuring a simple distinction: one thing is the trace as accident, another the mark as construction. Not everything that appears traced is graphic art in the strong sense, but it becomes so when the gesture does not merely appear and carries with it a responsibility of form. The same criterion applies to matrix and sheet, to engraved copper and watercolour, to the point on the ground and to graphite on paper: the decisive question is not the support in itself, but the degree of necessity the mark is able to assume.
Contemporary practices widen this field still further, and they do so not in order to dissolve it but to show its vitality. Engravings on unconventional materials, direct interventions on hybrid surfaces, the use of non-canonical instruments, superimpositions of print, writing, abrasion, watercolouring, collage, manual pressure, imprint, scratch, later intervention on the proof: all this does not annul graphic art, but reveals its real breadth. It is not only print that becomes experimental: so too do the mark itself, the relation between gesture and support, and the material decision through which an image takes shape. It is precisely on this ridge that historical reflection inevitably encounters living practice, because whoever works today in the field of the mark, even outside academic canons and outside traditional intaglio, finds again in altered forms that same necessity of construction that belonged to engravers of the past.
In this sense contemporary graphic art is not a chapter separated from historical graphic art, but the place where certain truths of graphic art become evident again. What is of interest here is not the illusion of the new as a value in itself. What matters, on the contrary, is to recognise where the mark, even in the present, continues to be compelled to choose, to measure, to give the surface an order rather than a mere effect. Where this happens, contemporaneity does not oppose tradition, but tests it. And precisely for this reason it forces one to understand better what in the past may have been looked at too hastily. For this reason too, the dialogue between the historical research on Francesco Di Bartolo (1826–1913), carried out by the present writer on the occasion of the bicentenary of his birth, and a contemporary practice of the mark is in no sense arbitrary.
There also exists a form of graphic art that involves the matrix, yet does not pass solely through it, and thus is realized entirely in the direct gesture and in its unmediated relation to the sheet or to the chosen surface. Many contemporary engravers have developed this awareness in full consciousness, abandoning the idea of rigidly uniform editions and working on proofs, states, chromatic interventions, differences of inking, variations of paper, successive transformations of the matrix. Stanley William Hayter (1901–1988) decisively redefined the relation between mark and colour within intaglio printmaking, showing how the same plate could become the site of a complexity far higher than traditional description had supposed; Johnny Friedlaender (1912–1992) pushed aquatint toward autonomous and fully pictorial results, remote from any servile function and any residual illustrative character; Mimmo Paladino (1948–) reintegrated graphic art into a broader system of images, materials, apparitions and returns of the mark; William Kentridge (1955–) brought the graphic mark into temporal and transformative processes in which drawing, erasure, print, memory and movement interact without fixed hierarchies. In all these cases graphic art appears not as minor territory, but as the place where the thought of the image measures itself against matter, time and the very possibility of variation. To this series also belongs David Hockney (1937–), precisely because his work renders visible with particular clarity how the problem of the mark can pass through different media without losing its substance.
What is at stake is not the alignment of famous names in order to lend the discussion external authority, but the demonstration that contemporary graphic art, when serious, is defined not by the eccentricity of supports or by the apparent freedom of procedures, but by the quality with which the mark asserts itself and continues to become structure. The aforementioned artists, each in his own way, confirm that graphic art remains alive where the surface does not become a pure site of effects, but continues to be the theatre of a decision.
In this context colour too must be reconsidered, because one of the most widespread misunderstandings consists in thinking it alien to the tradition of graphic art, or as a late concession to decorative needs. The coloured print is by no means a recent invention. There are examples already in the modern period and, more amply, in the nineteenth century, in which colour, applied by hand or obtained by means of multiple matrices, profoundly modifies the relation between mark and surface and between linear structure and tonal vibration. What today sometimes appears as radical experimentation in fact possesses precise historical roots, and contemporaneity, even when it seems to break with the past, often does no more than reopen possibilities already present, though in different forms, within the long history of graphic art.

Colour does not suppress the mark: it remodulates it, accompanies it, at times contradicts it, at times intensifies it, but always compels it to redefine its field. Here too the most superficial dissemination has done much damage, treating colour as a sort of added luxury or, worse, as a decorative concession when compared with the severity of black and white. But in the history of graphic art, when colour is structural, it is not simply added from outside: it intervenes in the way the mark expresses itself, in the relation between form and its atmosphere, in the distribution of visual tensions. A hand-coloured print, a print from multiple matrices, a chromatic variation of a proof cannot be understood at all unless one sees how colour is bound to construction and not merely to surface.
Nor is it foreign to this reflection that, in the present, graphic art may include a personal practice of the mark that does not necessarily pass through traditional intaglio and yet returns, by different routes, to the same problems of decision, resistance and construction. When non-decorative gesture measures itself against the surface, one finds oneself, though in another time and with other instruments, within the same horizon that renders the great tradition of graphic art intelligible. Even the freest contemporary graphic art, even that which opens itself to mixed techniques, irregular juxtapositions and unexpected materials, confirms that the heart of the problem lies not in fidelity to a closed technique, but in the structural quality of the mark. It is here that the comparison between historical research and living practice becomes fertile, because what one understands in the plates of a nineteenth-century engraver can once again illuminate, with extraordinary precision, the responsibility of whoever today constructs image through the mark.

This insistence on living practice is not a parenthesis of contemporary taste grafted onto a historical discourse, but an essential methodological point. Graphic art can be fully understood only when one realizes that the mark, even today, continues to demand what it once demanded. The present does not serve to make the past more current; it serves to verify that certain truths of the mark have never vanished.
The comparison with photography therefore arises naturally, because in the nineteenth century it was received with suspicion and perceived, for a considerable time, as a threat capable of rendering drawing useless and emptying engraving itself of its function. On the historical plane, that fear was not unfounded, because the irruption of a medium apparently quicker, more faithful, more immediate truly compelled earlier languages to redefine their role. And yet photography, far from erasing drawing or engraving, forced them to clarify their own field, to distinguish what belongs to registration from what remains entrusted to the construction of the mark, to the thought of form, to compositional intention. What seemed destined to be replaced discovered instead, precisely under the pressure of the new medium, the deepest reason for its persistence. From that moment onward no art of the mark could any longer imagine itself as coinciding with the mere capture of reality. Drawing and engraving were compelled to recognize with greater sharpness what in them was irreducible: not registration, but construction. In this sense photography did not impoverish graphic art; it laid it bare.
A similar dynamic reappears today, almost with comparable force, in relation to digital graphic art, which is at times perceived as an alien element, a device that deprives graphic art of its material nature and physicality. But here too the misunderstanding arises from oversimplification. The problem is not the tool, but the use made of it. The digital mark is not incised into matter in the same way as the burin, nor does it settle upon paper like graphite or ink, and yet it neither eliminates nor replaces the incised or drawn mark, because it belongs to a different order, one that does not cancel the others but stands beside them and places them in relation. The digital, too, can be a place of formal decision, of image construction, of discipline of the mark; for that very reason, however, it does not coincide with calcography, nor should it pretend to coincide with it. Its specificity must be recognized without anachronistic fears. The decisive question is not whether the digital is more or less noble than metal, but whether the image born within it is or is not constructed, whether the mark carries within it a necessity, whether the space is organized or merely filled. Where the digital is reduced to an effect, it remains outside the problem of graphic art in the higher sense; where it still compels the mark to think form, it enters that problem fully by right. For this reason the comparison must neither be idolized nor rejected, but understood. Just as photography did not annul painting or engraving, but helped to redefine their boundaries and to make their specific vocation more evident, so digital graphic art does not in itself represent a danger, but rather an extension of the field, a further possibility that neither exhausts nor replaces previous practices. Experiences such as those of David Hockney show clearly how different tools may coexist without annulling one another, each preserving its own specificity and revealing, if anything by contrast, what makes each medium irreducible to the other.
The error lies in thinking of innovation as the negation of what precedes it. In this sense the digital does not close the history of graphic art, but prolongs it, differentiates it, and subjects it to a new regime of comparison. There is here no surrender to indistinction; on the contrary, the more the means multiply, the more urgent it becomes to distinguish. And to distinguish means not to confuse extension with substitution, the novelty of the support with the quality of the mark, nor the apparent freedom of the medium with the truth of construction. Graphic art survives precisely because its nucleus does not reside in a single technique, but in the discipline by which a surface is compelled to become image.
Within this framework, ultimately, graphic art emerges with particular clarity as the place in which the mark maintains its own necessity, independently of means, epochs, tools, forms of dissemination, and even transformations of taste. In this sense Francesco Di Bartolo is not only an artist to be recovered, nor merely an engraver unjustly reduced for too long to oversimplified formulas: he is a point of verification, a concrete proof, an exemplary presence through whom an entire tradition may be read. To look at him means to withdraw from a generic history of printmaking and also to restore to the discourse on graphic art a less vague, more rigorous, and more useful foundation, because Di Bartolo compels one to see what graphic art is, and not merely what it seems to be. His work, seriously read, shows that the matrix is a place of thought, that the mark is responsibility, that the model does not diminish the engraver’s autonomy but measures its strength. And precisely for this reason he becomes central also to a high form of dissemination, capable of opposing banalization without lapsing into the schoolroom lesson, because through his case both an artist and an entire constellation of problems are clarified at once.
To defend graphic art does not mean reducing it to an enclosure of procedures, nor freezing it within a reserve of noble techniques, nor withdrawing it from a broader gaze in the name of a competence for initiates. It means, on the contrary, recognizing its breadth, understanding its transformations, shifting attention back from the visible result to the process that generates it, from the already completed surface to the labor that makes it necessary. In the persistence of the mark, which traverses techniques, tools, and times without dissolving, one measures the continuity of a language that does not exhaust itself in its appearance, but renews itself each time someone returns to engrave, to construct image. Here the discourse returns to its highest and simplest point, where graphic art asks not to be misconstrued, but truly understood. And Francesco Di Bartolo, precisely because he compels this proper process, resumes the place that belongs to him not in a periphery of worthy executors, but at the heart of a reflection on the construction of the image that reaches from his century, intact and restless, to our own.
Bibliography
Natalia Di Bartolo: Francesco Di Bartolo (1826–1913), Engraver and Painter. Biographical and Critical Reconstruction, Exhaustive Catalogue Raisonné of the Works.
Unpublished study, completed in full and protected by the author; the corpus is structured according to scientific criteria of attribution, documentary verification and formal comparison and is made available for consultation for study purposes upon reasoned request and according to the procedures established by the author.
Materials consulted: original works belonging to the author’s private collection; records, documents and testimonies reconstructed also through family historical memory, verified and compared with archival sources; archival documents, volumes, repertories and original holdings preserved at:
Naples: Archive of the Academy of Fine Arts; State Archives; National Library “Vittorio Emanuele III”.
Rome: Calcografia Nazionale (now Istituto Centrale per la Grafica); State Archives; National Central Library.
Milan: Archive and Library of the Castello Sforzesco: Civiche Raccolte Grafiche e Fotografiche – Raccolta delle Stampe “Achille Bertarelli”.
Catania: Biblioteche Riunite Civica e A. Ursino Recupero; State Archives; Museo Vincenzo Bellini.
Private collections and archives in Italy and abroad.
The work includes the complete collection of the documentation available for consultation at the time of the research, faithfully transcribed by hand in a period when photographic reproduction and photocopying were not permitted. The studies and brief biographies published from the 1960s and 1970s onwards were not adopted as critical reference sources, as they were considered to lack adequate documentary foundation and direct verification of the works and archival materials.
For the bibliography of the foundational corpus, please see the dedicated page.
For the scientific status of the corpus of studies on Francesco Di Bartolo (1826–1913), the editorial notes and the consultation procedures, please refer to the dedicated page.
Photos © N. Di Bartolo and respective owners


